Sains Malaysiana 45(3)(2016): 435–449

Physicochemical Evaluation and Spectroscopic Characterisation of Gelatine from Shank and Toes of Gallus gallus domesticus

(Penilaian Fizikokimia dan Pencirian Spekstroskopik Gelatin daripada Kaki dan Jari Kaki Gallus gallus domesticus)

MOHD SHAKRIE PALAN ABDULLAH^1,2, MOHAMED IBRAHIM NOORDIN¹, SYED IBRAHIM MOHD ISMAIL³, SHAIK NYAMATHULLA¹, MALINA JASAMAI⁴, LAM KOK WAI⁴, NUR MURNISA MUSTAPHA⁵ & AHMAD FUAD SHAMSUDDIN⁶*

¹Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur

Malaysia

²State Enforcement Branch, Pharmacy Service Division, Kelantan State Health Department

16100 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Darul Naim, Malaysia

³Ain Medicare Sdn. Bhd., Kawasan Perindustrian Pengkalan Chepa 2, 16100 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Darul Naim, Malaysia

⁴Drug and Herbal Research Centre, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

⁵Department of Pharmacy, Raja Perempuan Zainab II Hospital, 15586 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Darul Naim, Malaysia

⁶Centre for Drug Delivery Research, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Received: 13 May 2015/Accepted: 1 September 2015

ABSTRACT

Growing needs, inadequate supply along with health and religious issues are reasons for the increase in the demand for an alternative source of gelatine in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This study was conducted to optimize the process for producing halal-compliance gelatine from chicken waste; chicken shank and toes (CST). Double extraction process employed produced gelatine which was vitreous, lightweight and gossamer in appearance. Gelatine yield was 9.52%(w/w) with a pH of 3.85, moisture content of 7.17%, total protein content of 93.77%, total fat content of 0.93% and total ash of 1.57%. The Bloom strength of the CST gelatine (148.33 ± 5.51) was found to be slightly lower than the commercially available bovine gelatine (BS) (169.33 ± 58.53) (P > 0.05). Amino acid analysis showed that the CST gelatine (91.38 ± 1.01%) was comparable to BS gelatine (90.65 ± 1.56%)(P > 0.05). Double extraction has been shown to successfully increase the surface area to volume ratio of CST waste resulting in increased yield in gelatine and protein with lower total fat content obtained. The test results obtained showed that the CST gelatine produced through this method complies with pharmaceutical standards.

Keywords: Chicken shank; extraction; food and pharmaceutical industries; gelatine; protein

ABSTRAK

Keperluan yang meningkat dan bekalan yang terhad di samping isu kesihatan dan keagamaan merupakan penyebab permintaan yang tinggi untuk sumber alternatif gelatin dalam industri makanan dan farmaseutik pada masa ini. Kajian ini telah dijalankan untuk mengoptimumkan proses penghasilan gelatin halal daripada bahan sisa penyembelihan ayam iaitu bahagian kaki dan jari kaki ayam (CST). Proses dwi-pengekstrakan telah digunakan untuk menghasilkan gelatin yang bersifat lutsinar, ringan dan berserat umpama kaca. Jumlah gelatin CST yang diperoleh adalah 9.52% (berat/berat) dengan pH3.85, kandungan lembapan 7.17%, jumlah kandungan protein 93.77%, jumlah kandungan lemak 0.93% dan jumlah abu 1.57%. Kekuatan Bloom gelatin CST (148.33 ± 5.51) didapati lebih rendah daripada gelatin kulit lembu (BS)(169.33 ± 58.53) yang boleh didapati secara komersial di pasaran (P > 0.05). Analisis asid amino menunjukkan bahawa gelatin CST (91.38 ± 1.01%) adalah setanding dengan gelatin BS (90.65 ± 1.56%)(P > 0.05). Proses dwi-pengekstrakan didapati berjaya meningkatkan nisbah luas permukaan kepada isi padu CST menyebabkan jumlah hasil gelatin dan kandungan protein lebih tinggi serta kandungan lemak gelatin yang berkurang diperoleh. Ujian yang dijalankan telah menunjukkan bahawa gelatin CST yang dihasilkan melalui kaedah ini mematuhi piawaian farmaseutik.

Kata kunci: Gelatin; industri makanan dan farmaseutik; kaki ayam; pengekstrakan; protein

REFERENCES

Abdul, G.W. & Rittgers, C. 2014. Broiler Meat Sector - Malaysia, USDA Foreign Agriculture Service. pp. 1-4.

Abdullah, T. & Ireland, J.J. 2012. Halal Products: The views of muslim consumers across Malaysia. Journal for International Business and Entrepreneurship Development 6(3): 260-273.

Ahmad, M. & Benjakul, S. 2011. Characteristics of gelatin from the skin of unicorn leatherjacket (Aluterus monoceros) as influenced by acid pretreatment and extraction time. Food Hydrocolloids 25(3): 381-388.

Al-Saidi, G.S., Al-Alawi, A., Rahman, M.S. & Guizani, N. 2012. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic study of extracted gelatin from shaari (Lithrinus microdon) skin: Effects of extraction conditions. International Food Research Journal 19(3): 1167-1173.

Almeida, P.F. & Lannes, S.C.D.S. 2013. Extraction and physicochemical characterization of gelatin from chicken by-product. Journal of Food Process Engineering 36(6): 824-833.

Almeida, P.F.D., Silva Lannes, S.C.D., Calarge, F.A., de Brito Farias, T.M. & Santana, J.C.C. 2012. FTIR characterization of gelatin from chicken feet. Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 6(11): 1029-1032.

AOAC. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International. 16th ed. Arlington: AOAC International.

Boran, G., Mulvaney, S.J. & Regenstein, J.M. 2010. Rheological properties of gelatin from Silver Carp skin compared to commercially available gelatins from different sources. Journal of Food Science 75(8): E565-E571.

British Pharmacopoeia. 2010. London: Stationary Office.

Buckley, M., Penkman, K.E.H., Wess, T.J., Reaney, S. & Collins, M.J. 2012. Protein and mineral characterisation of rendered meat and bone meal. Food Chemistry 134(3): 1267-1278.

Budka, H., Buncic, S., Colin, P., Collins, J.D., Ducrot, C., Hope, J., Johnston, M., Klein, G., Kruse, H., Lucker, E., Magnino, S., Maijala, R.L., Lopez, A.M., Nguyen-The, C., Noerrung, B., Notermans, S., Nychas, G.J.E., Pensaert, M., Roberts, T., Vagsholm, I. & Vanopdenbosch, E. 2006. Quantitative assessment of the human BSE risk posed by gelatine with respect to residual BSE risk. The EFSA Journal 312: 1-29.

Cheow, C., Norizah, M., Kyaw, Z. & Howell, N. 2007. Preparation and characterisation of gelatins from the skins of sin croaker (Johnius dussumieri) and shortfin scad (Decapterus macrosoma). Food Chemistry 101(1): 386-391.

Cliche, S., Amiot, J., Avezard, C. & Garie, C. 2003. Extraction and characterization of collagen with or without telopeptides from chicken skin. Poultry Sciences 82: 503-509.

Du, L., Khiari, Z., Pietrasik, Z. & Betti, M. 2013. Physicochemical and functional properties of gelatins extracted from turkey and chicken heads. Poultry Science 92(9): 2463-2474.

Elzoghby, A.O. 2013. Gelatin-based nanoparticles as drug and gene delivery systems: Reviewing three decades of research. Journal of Controlled Release 172(3): 1075-1091.

Goodsell, D. 2000. Collagen. The Scripps Research Institute and the RCSB PDB. Doi: 10.2210/rcsb_pdb/mom_2000_4.

GMIA. 2012. The Gelatin Handbook. http://www.gelatin-gmia. com/images/GMIA_Gelatin_ Manual_2012. Accessed on 3 December 2013.

GMIA. 2013. Gima - Standard testing methods for edible gelatin. Official Procedure of the Gelatin Manufacturers Institute of America, Inc. http://www.gelatin-gmia.com /images/ GMIA_Official_Methods_of_Gelatin_Revised_2013.pdf.

Gomez-Guillen, M.C., Perez-Mateos, M., Gomez-Estaca, J., Lopez-Caballero, E., Gimenez, B. & Montero, P. 2009. Fish gelatin: A renewable material for developing active biodegradable films. Trends in Food Science & Technology 20(1): 3-16.

Herpandi, Huda, N. & Adzitey, F. 2011. Fish bone and scale as a potential source of halal gelatin. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 6(4): 379-389.

Jayaraman, K., Munira, H., Chowdhury, D. & Iranmanesh, M. 2013. The preference and consumption of chicken lovers with race as a moderator: An empirical study in Malaysia. International Food Research Journal 20(1): 165-174.

Jayathilakan, K., Sultana, K., Radhakrishna, K. & Bawa, A.S. 2010. Utilization of by-products and waste materials from meat, poultry and fish processing industries: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 49(3): 278-293.

Johnson, R.F. & Peebles, R.S. 2004. Anaphylactic shock: Pathophysiology, recognition, and treatment. Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 25(6): 695-703.

Kommareddy, S., Shenoy, D.B. & Amiji, M.M. 2005. Gelatin nanoparticles and their biofunctionalization. In Biofunctionalization of Nanomaterials: Nanotechnologies for the Life Sciences, Vol. 1, edited by Kumar, C. Berlin, Germany: Wiley-VCH. p. 386.

Lasekan, A., Abu, B.F. & Hashim, D. 2013. Potential of chicken by-products as sources of useful biological resources. Waste Management 33(3): 552-565.

Lim, J., Shin, W.S., Lee, H.G. & Kim, K.O. 2002. Optimizing extraction conditions for chicken feet gelatin. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 34(5): 824-829.

Liu, D.C. 2002. Better utilization of by-products from the meat industry. Food and Fertilizer Technology Centre. https:// www.agnet.org. Accessed on 3 December 2013.

Liu, D., Lin, Y. & Chen, M. 2001. Optimum condition of extracting collagen from chicken feet and its characetristics. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 14(11): 1638-1644.

Liu, X.L. & Xu, S.Y. 2004. Study on the gelatin processing from chicken leg bone. Food and Fermentation Industries 09: 14.

Mahmoodani, F., Ardekani, V.S. & Fern, S.S. 2014. Optimization of extraction and physicochemical properties of gelatin from pangasius catfish (Pangasius sutchi) skin. Sains Malaysiana 43(7): 995-1002.

Mahmoodani, F., Ardekani, V.S. & See, S.F. 2012. Optimization and physical properties of gelatin extracted from pangasius catfish (Pangasius sutchi) bone. Journal of Food Science and Technology 51(11): 3104-3113.

Marcotte, M., Taherian Hoshahili, A.R. & Ramaswamy, H.S. 2001. Rheological properties of selected hydrocolloids as a function of concentration and temperature. Food Research International 34(8): 695-703.

Nagarajan, M., Benjakul, S., Prodpran, T., Songtipya, P. & Kishimura, H. 2012. Characteristics and functional properties of gelatin from splendid squid (Loligo formosana) skin as affected by extraction temperatures. Food Hydrocolloids 29(2): 389-397.

Nicolas-Simonnot, M.O., Tréguer, V., Leclerc, J.P., Sardin, M., Brajoux, J.P., Moy, J. & Takerkart, G. 1997. Experimental study and modelling of gelatin production from bone powder: Elaboration of an overall kinetic scheme for the acid process. Chemical Engineering Journal 67(1): 55-64.

Noordin, M.I. & Chung, L.Y. 2004. A rapid micro quantification method of paracetamol in suppositories using differential scanning calorimetry. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy 30(9): 925-930.

Norimah, A.K., Safiah, M.Y., Jamal Khair, H., Haslinda, S., Zuhaida, H., Rohida, S., Fatimah, S., Norazlin, S., Poh, B.K., Kandiah, M., Zalilah, M.S., Wan Manan, W.M., Fatimah, S. & Azmi, M.Y. 2008. Food consumption patterns: Findings from the Malaysian adult nutrition survey (Mans). Malaysian Journal of Nutrition 14(1): 25-39.

Nur, S., Sa’id, E., Munandar, J. & Machfud, M. 2010. Traceability system model for quality gelatin raw material of cattle hides. Journal of Animal Production 12(3): 190-198.

Park, J.H., Choe, J.H., Kim, H.W., Hwang, K.E., Song, D.H., Yeo, E.J., Kim, H.Y., Choi, Y.S., Lee, S.H. & Kim, C.J. 2013. Effects of various extraction methods on quality characteristics of duck feet gelatin. Korean Journal Food Science of Animal Resources 33(2): 162-169.

Persson, J.A., Wennerholm, M. & O’halloran, S. 2008. Handbook for Kjeldahl Digestion 4th ed. Denmark: Foss, DK-3400 Hilleroed.

Prayitno. 2011. Extraction of collagen from chicken feet with various acidic solutions and soaking time. Animal Production 9(2): 99-104.

Rafieian, F., Keramat, J. & Kadivar, M. 2013. Optimization of gelatin extraction from chicken deboner residue using RSM method. Journal of Food Science and Technology 50(2): 374-380.

Sarabia, A.I., Gómez-Guillén, M.C. & Montero, P. 2000. The effect of added salts on the viscoelastic properties of fish skin gelatin. Food Chemistry 70(1): 71-76.

Sarbon, N.M., Badii, F. & Howell, N.K. 2013. Preparation and characterisation of chicken skin gelatin as an alternative to mammalian gelatin. Food Hydrocolloids 30(1): 143-151.

Shah, H. & Yusof, F. 2014. Gelatin as an ingredient in food and pharmaceutical products: An Islamic perspective. Advances in Environmental Biology (Special 2014) 8(3): 774-780.

Shiying, L.X.X. 2005. Application of H2O2 in gelatin extraction from chicken bone. Food and Fermentation Industries 4: 24.

Singh, S., Rao, K.V.R., Venugopal, K. & Manikandan, R. 2002. Alteration in dissolution characteristics of gelatin-containing formulations. Pharmaceutical Technology 26(4): 36-54.

Smith, J.W., Opio, C., Steinfeld, H. & Lufafa, A. 2010. Global demand and trade in livestock and livestock products in a globalizing world. Adapting Animal Production to Changes for A Growing Human Population, International Conference. Lleida, Spain. pp. 25-34.

Statistics, A. 2012. Annual Change of Livestock, 2007-2012. http://www.moa.gov.my Accessed on 23 November 2013.

Totre, J., Ickowicz, D. & Domb, A.J. 2011. Properties and hemostatic application of gelatin. In Biodegradable Polymers in Clinical Use and Clinical Development, edited by Domb, A.J., Kumar, N. & Ezra, A. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 91-109.

Van der Spiegel, M., Van der Fels-Klerx, H.J., Sterrenburg, P., Van Ruth, S.M., Scholtens-Toma, I.M.J. & Kok, E.J. 2012. Halal assurance in food supply chains: Verification of halal certificates using audits and laboratory analysis. Trends in Food Science & Technology 27(2): 109-119.

Wangtueai, S. & Noomhorm, A. 2009. Processing optimization and characterization of gelatin from lizardfish (Saurida spp.) scales. LWT - Food Science and Technology 42(4): 825-834.

Windhorst, H. 2006. Changes in poultry production and trade worldwide. World’s Poultry Science Journal 62: 585-602.

Young, S., Wong, M., Tabata, Y. & Mikos, A.G. 2005. Gelatin as a delivery vehicle for the controlled release of bioactive molecules. Journal of Controlled Release 109(1-3): 256-274.

Zhang, F., Wang, A., Li, Z., He, S. & Shao, L. 2011. Preparation and characterisation of collagen from freshwater fish scales. Food & Nutrition Sciences 2(8): 818-823.

*Corresponding author; email: afsna@ukm.edu.my