Volume 36 (02) March 2024

The development of the micro-powder injection molding (µPIM) process from the powder injection molding (PIM) process has been prompted by the demand of the worldwide market to produce micro-sized components. The need for µPIM-processed components is currently rising across a range of industries, including automotive, aerospace, food, biomedical, electronics, and telecommunications. In the current research work, homogeneous HA feedstock with a powder loading of 57 vol.% was prepared by mixing HA powder particles with palm stearin and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) binders at a mixing temperature of 150 °C for 6 h. Defect-free injection molded or green micro-sized components of HA were produced by employing injection pressure, injection time, mold temperature, and melt temperature of 12 bar, 5 s, 110 °C, and 180 °C, respectively. When mold temperatures less than 110 °C were used, short shot defects were frequently observed in green specimens. After solvent debinding at 60 °C for 50 min, 82.2% of the palm stearin was removed from the green part. No difference in dimension between the solvent debound part and the green part was noticed. An open-pore structure developed in the solvent debound HA microcomponent is helpful for eliminating the insoluble LDPE binder during the thermal debinding phase.

Keywords : Micro-powder injection molding; Hydroxyapatite; Feedstock; Solvent debinding

In the last few years, the Low-powered wide area networks (LPWAN) have gained popularity and massively deployed, especially in smart cities and agriculture, due to their advantages, such as energy efficiency, extensive coverage, and low cost. The long-range wide area networks (LoRaWAN) protocol is a new technology. It attracts the attention of many research centers worldwide as it allows data transmission at a low cost across long distances. This article reviews the performance of LoRa and LoRaWAN for both investigations in indoor and outdoor environments. Moreover, a performance analysis of this technology is made by focusing on five main indicators, which are coverage, time on air (TOA), packet error rate (PER), received signal strength indication (RSSI), and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) while considering technical characteristics is included. The investigation settings were divided into two categories: simulation and testbed in a real-world application. Consequently, a table of summary of indicators used by the researcher was made to make it easier for other researchers to find references for their topics relevant to this review. Next, the identified key issues and solutions are discussed in this review. The issues discussed significantly affect the performance of various monitoring technologies regarding energy management, quality of service, coverage, signal interference, and data handling. Finally, this review will discuss the future perspective, provide valuable suggestions for future research works, and lead toward improving current LoRaWAN technology.

Keywords: LPWAN; LoRaWAN; Performance; Indooor &Outdoor Environment; Issues; Future Directions

An Ambulatory Surgical Center (ASC), also known as an outpatient surgery center, is a medical facility that provides same-day surgical procedures to patients who do not require an overnight stay in a hospital. ASCs are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment and staffed by highly trained healthcare professionals, including surgeons, anaesthesiologists and nurses. There are many areas along the river where people do not have easy access to any surgery. They have to go far to get this service, for which they do not even take the service. This research is for them. This research will ensure their basic medical services. The contribution of this research, this world-class surgical ship goes to ensure the basic medical needs of poor people in remote areas where good healthcare is not available. Another great contribution that will surprise the world is that no conventional fuel is needed to ensure this healthcare service. So undoubtedly this research has a great contribution in the global energy crisis. To ensure efficient ambulatory surgical center (ASC) ship, conducting site assessment, sizing the hybrid system appropriately, selecting the right components, improving hybrid energy system design, implement intelligent system is important. And these are the scope of our research. A detailed analysis of all possible aspects has shown that using intelligent hybrid energy ships instead of conventional ships improves the quality of service. Long lasting service is achieved with low energy consumption, sustainability and no pollution even without compromising performance. In this research details of ASC will be critically discussed.

Keywords: Hybrid energy system, Ambulatory Surgical Center Ship, intelligent system, outpatient surgery center, efficient system

Cleaning is a crucial step in the remanufacturing of end-of-life components. The main purpose of cleaning is to remove all contaminant items such as dirt, oils, dust in order to facilitate the process of core inspection before moving on to the subsequent step to complete the remanufacturing activity. However, there are issues/challenges related to the cleaning methods that affect the process efficiency. It has also been reported that the cleaning process is time consuming and has adverse impact to the environment. Cleaning is directly influenced by the various cleaning methods and the design features of each core/incoming parts. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of shot blasting cleaning method from core design perspectives in the case of an alternator. The results will be assessed based cleanliness level after the cleaning process on the core surface, complex shape, geometry, and joining method. The outcome demonstrates that the complexity of the core design also affects the cleaning process efficiency. According to the study shot blasting cleaning method without any pretreatment process was insufficient to fully clean the core. Hence, it is suggested to consider several parameters to enhance the shot blasting method to clean the used alternator for remanufacturing process.

Keywords: remanufacturing; cleaning method; shot blasting; design, alternator

The emergence of additive manufacturing has enabled design improvements for automotive industry components, such as reducing weight and enhancing performance. However, the application of lightweight designs for automotive components is yet to be fully explored. Previous studies have explored the different types of lattice structures and topology optimized parts, but have yet to explore its application in a brake calliper. This paper focuses on the design improvement of brake calliper for the automotive industry. The methodology consists of reverse engineering of an actual Volkswagen Golf Mk6 brake calliper and redesigning using topology optimisation and lattice structures. The new brake calliper design is then compared to the existing model in terms of weight reduction. The results show that through topology optimisation, it is possible to achieve weight reduction of brake calliper, while maintaining the part requirements. In conclusion, brake calliper designs can be improved using topology optimisation and lattice structures to achieve weight reduction. This research contributes to sustainability and reduces fuel consumption of cars through the decrease in part weight of automotive components, which is important in this era to comply with the environmental regulations and sustainability, in accordance with the UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals.

Keywords: Lattice structure, brake calliper, reverse engineering, topology optimization

Early studies of transformer winding parameters were focused on the determination via its physical dimensions and empirical formulas. In most cases it is divided into several parts namely coil section pairs, coils distance, disc coils diameter and thickness of insulation. Maxwell’s equations are often the solution to the problem, which satisfy related boundary conditions between conductors for mutual inductance and capacitor equations. Such solutions often led to errors and hence its mathematical model. To counter the problem, it was suggested that such approximations must be conducted with experimental model windings at the same time. Frequency domain measurements and time domain measurements can be conducted to effectively determine these parameters. This in turn will investigate the behaviour of transformer winding electromagnetic transient at high frequency. From theoretical point of view, predominantly capacitive winding model often considered to represent its behaviour at high frequency and will give the results of its initial distribution. Under this consideration, a single phase plain winding is considered for investigation. A single rectangular wave was considered to represent infinitive impinge incident wave, injected at one end of transformer winding and the measured response signals of the wavetail were considered for measurement. The experimental response and modelling results were compared and proved to have high agreement between the two.

Keywords: Winding transformer; Capacitive winding; Transformer winding distribution.

Walkability is a significant and well-known study to make the built environment to be walkable. However, there is a scarcity of material that aims to investigate the structure and research trends of walkability in recent years. Therefore, the objective of this systematic review is to investigate the structure and research trends in walkability. By applying the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) review method, a systematic literature review (SLR) identifies 50 studies by walkability from 2021 to 2022 from the 3 well-known databases for searching scientific publications including Web of Science, Scopus, and Sage. A mapping technique using VOSviewer to identify thematic focus is employed. Based on these 50 studies, it shows that the existing research on walkability within two years consists of some conceptual aspects that underlying walkability studies including ‘the built environment’, ‘walking’ and physical activity’, which then leads to one or some specific problems on physical or perceived factors which ultimately aim to create a walkable area. Hence, it is significant to do more research on the integration between factors in this field to solve the dependence on motorized transportation for future scholarly work. In addition, the usage of tools could enrich the existing literature on this field. It is also noted that various age perceptions to solve walkability issues need to be considered. The research also emphasizes significant authors, journals, references, countries, and organizations that have contributed to the development of the walkability literature to elaborate in more detail on thematic focus.

Keywords: Walkability, Walkable, PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis, Systematic literature review, Science Mapping, VOSviewer

This study created membrane nanofibres using the electrospinning method and newly studied a mixture of ENR and ABS. The two-level complete factorial designs with centre points were used to characterise the functionality of the constructed membrane. The variables considered for experimental design were the polymer concentration, materials ratio (ENR concentration), applied voltage and distance between the needle tip and collector. According to the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the concentration of solution and distance were statistically significant parameters that affected the tensile properties of the ENR/ABS electrospun membrane. A mathematical model of the tensile property of polymer fibres was created using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). This model was built based on essential process factors. The mechanical properties of the electrospun ENR/ABS membrane compromised with 25wt% of solution concentration, 30% ratio of ENR, the voltage at 22.5kV and 15 cm of distance create an excellent tensile strength with desirability of 0.94. The influence of ENR on the morphology of ENR/ABS fibres was characterised by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The result showed beaded fibre and decreased fibres due to the low concentration of the solution and high ratio of ENR (50%). The contact angle measurements indicated that the electrospun fibre membrane was hydrophobic with a water contact angle of 136°. The addition of ENR showed a reduction in contact angle to 119°. The existence of ENR will change the features of the membrane, and investigations have demonstrated that RSM has been efficiently developed to acquire the interaction effects of processing parameters.

Keywords : Response surface methodology (RSM); Epoxidized natural rubber (ENR), electrospinning, hydrophilicity

MXenes, with their unique surface properties and 2D structure, have demonstrated promising potential in electronic devices, particularly in memory storage. This study explored the potential of 2D Ti₃C₂T_x for the nonvolatile memory (NVM) application. The simple solution process routes were used to fabricate the two-terminal bistable switching devices. The silver nanowires/nanocomposite/ITO structure was deposited on a glass substrate using spin coating and spray coating techniques. The Ti₃C₂T_x MXene flakes were incorporated into a poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) polymer host to form the nanocomposite and act as a charge-trapping layer. Meanwhile, PMMA acts as a dielectric layer. The measured current-voltage data showed a bistable current behavior with the presence of a memory window. The fabricated NVM memory devices were reprogrammable when the endurance test was performed and stable up to 1×104 s cycles with a distinct ON/OFF ratio of 103. The conduction mechanisms were identified using the curve-fitting method with double log plots of current-voltage (I-V) data. Based on the obtained I-V characteristics, various conduction mechanisms, especially Schottky and Poole-Frenkel emission, trapped charge limiting current, and space charge limited current, were proposed to be responsible for the bistable switching behavior. Thus, the results of this study provide an experimental basis for using MXene in non-volatile memory applications.

Keywords: Ti₃C₂T_x; non-volatile memory, bistable, nanocomposite, conduction mechanisms

The ability of Geographic Information System (GIS) applications to manage three-dimensional (3D) data is increasing along with advancements in current technology, and this ability can be further enhanced through the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology. While the combination of BIM and GIS technologies provides significant benefits to human life, there are several challenges and limitations that need to be addressed for successful implementation. Therefore, research on previous articles will be conducted to examine the challenges and potential of this integration. This paper will begin with searching for relevant previous articles using appropriate keywords on Web of Science and Scopus. The search will be conducted in two parts, articles related to BIM-GIS integration with keywords “BIM” AND “GIS,” and articles concerning the usage of 3D data in GIS applications for drainage system management using keywords “GIS” AND “3D” AND “DRAINAGE.” From these articles, observations will be made regarding (1) the structure of BIM-GIS integration data, (2) implemented integration methods, (3) utilization of integration models, and (4) the potential of BIM-GIS Integration in managing 3D drainage system data. The research identifies key challenges in BIM-GIS integration, including differences in class numbers, dissimilar class arrangement, geometry creation methods, and georeference system application. To address these challenges, standard protocols based on specific requirements need to be established by considering organizational needs to ensure a consistent integration process. The paper also recognizes significant potential in employing BIM-GIS integration for drainage system management.

Keywords: BIM; GIS; 3D Model; Integration; Drainage System

A comprehensive understanding of slope stability is essential for ensuring the safety and durability of structures built on or near slopes and mitigating the risks associated with landslides and slope failures. Slope stability is typically evaluated using the factor of safety (FOS) based on the critical slip surfaces. The calculation of FOS is commonly executed using Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) by dividing the slope into several vertical slices. However, the stability analyses using Finite Element Method (FEM) have gained significant attention in geotechnical engineering due to their ability to simulate slope behaviour and predict stability accurately by employing mathematical models and computational algorithms. Hence, this paper aims to analyse the FOS of the unreinforced slope using 2D FEM and 3D FEM conducted through computer software while examining the influence of different mesh coarseness. Besides that, the formation of critical slip surfaces and the displacement behaviour of the slope are also presented. A slope geometry model was analysed using PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D with different mesh coarseness. The findings were compared and discussed. The findings reveal that the values of FOS generated by 3D FEM are slightly larger compared to 2D FEM analysis, ranging from 1.27% to 2.56%. On the other hand, the effect of mesh coarseness indicates that coarser mesh sizes yield higher FOS values compared to finer mesh sizes. The shape, location and depth of the critical slip surfaces are consistent for each analysis in both methods. However, the maximum displacement values differ for each mesh coarseness, as the locations of maximum total displacement are identified at different nodes due to varying numbers of elements but still within the same potential failure zone. Overall, this comparative study is crucial in ensuring the validity of the performed analyses. Understanding the capabilities and limitations of 2D and 3D numerical analyses to achieve reliable and accurate results is important to balance mesh coarseness and computational efficiency.

Keywords: Slope stability; Critical slip surface; Finite element method; Mesh coarseness.

Harvesting energy from microwave frequency is one of the key areas of research in the past decade to provide an alternative power source for wireless devices and sensor networks. The increase in the employment of Internet of Things (IoT) devices as well as sensors in order to support technological advancement leads to an increase in the energy demand. This in turn leads to environmental pollution due to the large amount of batteries being disposed. As such, in order to support the current demand for clean and sustainable energy that can reduce environmental pollution, various approaches to reduce the usage of conventional batteries in these systems are being researched. One of the approaches is the usage of the antenna to harvest radio frequency energy. The appearance of graphenebased material further sparked the interest of researchers due to its exciting properties. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive review on the advancement of the usage of graphene-based material in the field of harvesting ambient radio frequency energy. Graphene material is first introduced in order to understand its characteristics and properties as a replacement for the conventional copper material. Current state-of-the-art approaches on graphene-based radio frequency energy harvesting systems were then reviewed and compared. The future prospect of graphene-based material in energy harvesting systems was also presented and discussed, shedding light on the future potential areas for research and development.

Keywords: Microwave Frequencies Energy Harvesting; Energy Harvesting; Graphene-based Material

This research aims to develop a methodology for the evaluation of the potential energy saving and energy generation of semi-transparent PV and double-glazed window in Indonesia office buildings. The evaluation is based on Comsol software. The heat transfer equations for the inside the enclosure between the glass have been constructed according to the natural convection equation. The simulations were accomplished for four orientations from January until December and compared to a single-glazed window. The results show that it is possible to reduce the energy consumption for artificial lighting and air-conditioning using appropriate control systems and furthermore to generate electricity using semi-transparent photovoltaic panels in windows. The use of semi-transparent PV and double-glazed window has proven to be more effective in reducing heat transfer in buildings and generate electricity. East-facing double-glazed windows produce the most electricity, approximately 341 kWh.

Keywords: Heat transfer; Double-glazed window; Comsol; Photovoltaic; Thermal system

Graph data appears in broad real-world applications in modelling complex objects in big data. Effective analysis of graph data provides a deeper understanding of the data in data mining tasks, including classification, clustering, prediction, and recommendation systems. Mining a large number of graphs becomes a challenging task because state-of-the-art methods are not scalable due to the memory limit. To address this issue, we propose a novel approximate random sampling method for large-scale graph data classification. In this approach, we applied a representation method to encode each graph as a record of a vector string and a set of graphs as a set of N records in a file. Then, we partition the set of records into disjoint subsets of data blocks, making each data block a random sample of the data file. After that, we randomly select a subset of data blocks, each being a random sample of the graph dataset, and compute the different graph property distributions. Since the data blocks in this model are much smaller than the entire data set, it is more efficient to analyze them on a standalone small machine, and multiple data blocks can be analyzed on multiple nodes of the cluster in parallel. Finally, we classified the graphs of data blocks using the SVM algorithm. In experimental evaluation, our proposed method outperformed state-of-the-art graph kernels on graph classification datasets in terms of accuracy.

Keywords: Graphs classification; Random sample partitioning; Approximate computing; Distributed and parallel computing

The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic literature review to identify the barriers and critical success factor that influence in implementation of Lean Supply Chain Management (LSCM) practices in industry. Through this systematic literature review (SLR), it is expected to identify the main gaps related to LSCM implementation in industry and discuss the relevance of research in this topic for indicating the future research direction. A SLR was developed and determined, which involved the selecting of keyword, developing of research question, searching and evaluation of literature for 53 research articles. The content of present of literature was reviewed, critically analysed and synthesised from the perspective of barrier and critical success factors that influence the implementation of LSCM. This study reveals that relationship with supplier, commitment and support by top management are the key critical success factor in lean implementation. Furthermore, the results showed that lack of management commitment and leadership, lack of training and skills, lack of system view or strategy are the barriers in lean implementation. Based on the extensive systematic review of literature, we found of the consistency data between Barriers and Critical Success Factor. This study extends previous studies on LSCM, strengthens the body of knowledge on the issue and consolidates the key LSCM activities, barriers and critical success factors associated with its implementation. The clear identification of these topics can allow researchers and practitioners to predict occasional problems and to set the right standards for the implementation of LSCM.

Keywords: Lean supply chain management; Barriers; Critical Success Factor; Systematic literature review

In microwave imaging applications, filter and antenna are the key components as front-end devices and function independently. Antenna radiates and receives signals to or from nearby scattered objects while filter is used to suppress unwanted signals noise before and after the required bandwidth. Current antennas suffer from high loss, bandwidth limitation and impedance mismatch and deteriorate their performance near the band-edges if connected as a stand-alone device. Due to the current trend towards simplicity and size reduction, researchers are focusing on integrating the filter and antenna into a single module called integrated filter-antenna (IFA) or filtering antenna (filtenna). These would improve the noise performance of the system and pre-filtering requirements such as complexity algorithm in inverse scattering techniques This paper introduces a novel contribution in the field of UWB antenna design by incorporating Defected Ground Structure (DGS) on both the antenna and filter. Thus, the main aim of this research is to conduct detail parametric studies of the proposed integrated filter-antenna with defected ground structure (DGS) to enhance the performance of imaging system. The proposed IFA will be analysed on Rogers RO4003C dielectric substrate by using EM tool, Computer Simulation Technology (CST) and measured using R&S Vector Network Analyzer (VNA). A compact ultra-wideband (UWB) filter and UWB elliptical antenna are designed and examined in detail before combining the devices. Different types of DGS are designed and act as the ground layer of the proposed filtering antenna. The bandwidth of each design is then compared with and without the existence of DGS. The results show that the proposed IFA with DGS implementation achieve the targeted objective, with compact size, enhanced bandwidth and better performance compared to the conventional design of filter and antenna. By integrating filter and antenna into one subsystem, it can help to reduce the loss and enhancing the bandwidth of the system thus letting the antenna to operate at more different frequencies that fall within the range. Both simulated and measured results prove that by integrating filter and antenna into one module, a low loss and larger bandwidth can be accomplished. High performance compact IFA can act as microwave transceiver to improve the overall performance of the microwave imaging system, MIS.

Keywords: Integrated Filter-Antenna (IFA) or Filtering Antenna (filtenna), Defected Ground Structure (DGS), Ultra-wideband (UWB), Rogers RO4003C dielectric substrate, Computer Simulation Technology (CST), R&S Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).

In recent times, extreme hydrological events have disrupted the performance of various structures, particularly the structural foundations responsible for transferring the superstructure’s weight to the natural ground. This disruption underscores the significance of matric suction and soil saturation, which are influenced by hydrological conditions like precipitation, soil shear strength, and foundation settlement. These factors are essential when designing structures in specific locations with distinct geotechnical parameters. To address these challenges, our research employs Plaxis 2D numerical modeling to investigate the dynamic changes in matric suction within soil beneath shallow foundations under varying rainfall conditions. Our approach involves a fully-coupled flow method, incorporating the Van Genuchten hydraulic model. In recognition of practical constraints, we utilize fundamental soil classification parameters for model configuration. Our findings reveal the substantial impact of matric suction fluctuations during rainfall on soil deformation, as indicated by displacement patterns. This highlights the critical importance of matric suction in comprehending soil behavior. Furthermore, we observe that higher initial water table levels correlate with reduced variations in matric suction and soil deformation during rainfall, emphasizing the regulatory role of water table depth. In conclusion, this study emphasizes the necessity of considering matric suction and water table depth in structural design and geotechnical analysis, particularly when faced with extreme hydrological events. By comprehending these factors, we can enhance our understanding of soil behavior, improve foundation stability, and develop more effective design strategies for structures in various environmental conditions.

Keywords:

Peat soil is frequently seen as a soil foundation concern which normally required soil stabilization work. This study is conducted to assess the strength of peat soil mixed with GeoPolySoilS as a proposed ground improvement work for peat soil in Kampung Johan Setia in Klang Selangor, Malaysia. In order to look into the strength improvement of this peat soil, laboratory tests were conducted namely Unconfined Compressive Strength Test (UCT) and Calfornia Bearing Ratio Test (CBR). The highest strength of UCT for the uncured soils with 14% GeoPolySoilS is 161 kPa whilst for the sample that was cured for 7,14,28 and 50 days, the highest value of UCT with 20% GeoPolySoilS are 58.08 kPa,61.66 kPa, 95.62 kPa and 80.04 kPa respectively. For the CBR value, the highest top layer value is 8.12% for peat soil mixed with 14% GeoPolySoilS whilst the highest value for the bottom layer is 62.25% for unsoaked CBR. For soaked CBR, the highest top layer value is 5.82% for 20% GeoPolySoilS and the highest value for bottom layer is 43.07%. The strength of the modified peat increased with the increased of curing time and the percentage of GeoPolySoilS

Keywords: Peat; ground improvement; GeopolySoilS; CBR test; Compressive strength

Predictive analysis using artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed the landscape of forecasting analysis in various research fields. The advancements in AI modelling algorithms have enhanced decision-making, trend identification, and process optimization. In geotechnical engineering, AI assists in predicting soil behaviour, structural stability, and slope stability. The AI model discussed in this paper is the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). In this study, the ANFIS model predicts slope stability by examining the Factor of Safety (FOS) value. Slope stability analyses reinforced with continuous bored pile walls generated by the numerical computation of the finite element method (FEM) in two dimensions (2D) and three dimensions (3D) are compared with the predictions of the ANFIS model. The numerical FEM computations employ PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D software. Meanwhile, the ANFIS model is designed within the MATLAB software platform involving 112 data samples. With six input pile parameters and one output, the finding shows that the ANFIS model can learn complex non-linear data and accurately predict the output. This is supported by the R² values of 0.9771 and 0.9965 from comparing the forecasting output with the 2D and 3D FEM outputs, respectively. Meanwhile, the low RMSE values of 0.0187 and 0.0180 each confirm this.

Keywords: Artificial intelligence; Stabilised Slope stability; Factor of safety; FEM; ANFIS

Assessing thermal comfort in vehicles poses unique challenges compared to buildings. The in-car environment is characterized by specific factors such as sunlight exposure, poor clothing insulation, non-uniform average radiant temperature, and limited time to establish comfort parameters. To address these challenges, this study aims to evaluate thermal comfort in different branded car cabins by analyzing temperature distribution, air velocity, relative humidity, and dew point temperature. A comprehensive review of literature was conducted, focusing on various aspects including airflow regimes, factors influencing thermal comfort, measuring instruments, and comfort indices. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing comprehensive methodologies to assess thermal comfort and indoor air quality in vehicle cabins. The results of the study indicate that MPV cars offer superior comfort levels within the optimal range of -1 to +1, surpassing sedans and compact cars. These findings are instrumental in guiding design and engineering decisions to improve passenger comfort in vehicles. Tailoring the design of different car types to meet the specific comfort requirements can lead to enhanced overall comfort and satisfaction. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into assessing thermal comfort and indoor air quality in vehicle cabins. By addressing the unique challenges posed by the in-car environment, it offers guidance for designing and engineering vehicles that prioritize passenger comfort and well-being.

Keywords: Thermal comfort; Predicted mean vote (PMV); Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD)

Solar still was successfully used for the desalination of saline water in many arid and oceanic regions of the world. But the yield of solar still was found very low and fluctuating. The new develop system with the flashing of solarheated water is found possible during the study of flashing of hot water in many thermal processes used during the chemical and pharmaceutical processes. A compact and effective desalination system using solar energy had designed during the research work from the design reviews collected from flashing hot water devices used in many thermal processes. The compact flash chamber and flash steam condenser are critical components developed for the novel desalination system using locally available materials during the research work. In present experimental work a flash chamber is designed for flashing of solar heated water. Experimental work shows that by increasing the mass flow rate of water from 0.01 kg/sec to 0.02 kg/sec the distillate output of water could be increased with higher temperature of water. It shows that around 38% of higher distillate output in water could be achieved with development of new system.

Keywords: Solar still (SS), Flat Plate Collector (FPC), Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC), Flash Chamber, Flash Steam Condenser, Vacuum Pump

The utilization of Internet of Things (IoT) devices is increasing very rapidly, creating a demand for skilled professionals who can navigate the complexities of this technology. It is a crucial educational challenge to prepare undergraduates to become contributors in this emerging field. The curriculum needs to be updated to offer students both theoretical learning and practical application so they can benefit from it. This paper introduces a comprehensive IoT learning module to the final-year students of civil engineering in an elective course, Smart Building. The proposed learning module includes an introduction to IoT concepts and applications, IoT devices, communication protocols, cloud platforms, user interfaces, and IoT risk management and security, all of which can be easily integrated into existing courses. Results from the module are presented using direct and indirect assessments, including assignments, hands-on practical, examinations, and surveys. These assessments are designed to evaluate the students’ understanding and the challenges they encountered in their IoT learning process. The findings indicate that a significant majority, surpassing 90% of the students, have demonstrated understanding of a minimum of three essential components of the fundamental IoT architecture, despite their limited background knowledge at the beginning of the course. Additionally, this learning module can serve as a valuable resource for other educators who intend to deliver IoT-related courses.

Keywords: Civil engineering; Curriculum; Internet of Things; Learning module; Smart building

This paper presents dual band antenna by designing basic dipole antenna integrated with C-shaped patches structure for RFID applications. This C-shaped patch is inspired by E-shapes patch antenna that able to perform multiband frequency. The design of the equivalent circuit started with the fundamental circuit of impedance Zo and Z1 which functioned as a dipole antenna in single band. The parallel RLC circuit of impedance Z2 is added in the circuit as loaded patch has affected the resonating frequency. Variations of C1 and L1 on impedance Z1 effect a gap between the two resonance frequencies without changing the bandwidth by shifting the lower frequency. In addition, the variation of C2 and L2 on the impedance Z2 also affects the ratio between the two resonance frequencies but both frequencies are shifted and the bandwidth changes. Consequently, the dual band is presented at 0.915 GHz (UHF RFID) and 2.4 GHz (ISM RFID) by calculating the value of the resistance, inductance and capacitance. The data from electromagnetic simulation are compared with the data predicted by the antenna circuit modeling. The frequency sampled measurement data may be represented in the form of S-parameter in order to represent dependent data in a time domain simulator in P-SPICE software. The C-shaped design can be independently controlled to perform lower band and upper band by adjusting the width and length of the patch. The performance of the proposed antenna demonstrates the dual band antenna for RFID application with good agreements between measured and simulated results.

Keywords: Bipolar Antenna, Dual Band, UHF RFID, ISM RFID

Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) was introduced by Paatero and Tapper in 1994 and it was a general way of reducing the dimension of the matrix with non-negative entries. Non-negative matrix factorization is very useful in many data analysis applications such as character recognition, text mining, and others. This paper aims to study the application in Chinese character recognition using non-negative matrix factorization. Python was used to carry out the LU factorization and non-negative matrix factorization of a Chinese character in Boolean Matrix. Preliminary analysis confirmed that the data size of and and are chosen for the NMF of the Boolean matrix. In this project, one hundred printed Chinese characters were selected, and all the Chinese characters can be categorized into ten categories according to the number of strokes , for . The Euclidean distance between the Boolean matrix of a Chinese character and the matrix after both LU factorization and NMF is calculated for further analysis. Paired t-test confirmed that the factorization of Chinese characters in the Boolean matrix using NMF is better than the LU factorization. Finally, ten handwritten Chinese characters were selected to test whether the program is able to identify the handwritten and the printed Chinese characters. Experimental results showed that 70% of the characters can be recognized via the least Euclidean distance obtained. NMF is suitable to be applied in Chinese character recognition since it can reduce the dimension of the image and the error between the original Boolean matrix and after NMF is less than 5%.

Keywords: Chinese characters recognitions; Matrix factorizations; Non-negative matrix factorization.

The visualization of mapping has aided researchers in gaining a better understanding and studying a specific area in a variety of professions. One of the well-known visualization software for mapping is the Geographic Information System (GIS). This work demonstrates the integration between an open-source GIS technology, named QGIS, and the Google Earth Pro programme in the mapping and analysis of electrical distribution substations. This integration shows the electrical substation data, the possible communication technology ranking, and a map that can be displayed and visualized based on the demographics. The QGIS in this study is used to reclassify the demographics into three main demographics: urban, suburban, and rural areas. On the other hand, the Google Earth Pro programme is used to map and visualize the overall electrical distribution substations alongside the communication technology ranking, based on the three main demographics. A case study using QGIS and Google Earth Pro was carried out in Area X, Malaysia for this investigation. Substation locations in Area X are mapped using Google Earth Pro, and the area’s demographics are categorized as part of the process. The features also enable the technology ranking to be displayed upon clicking the respective color-coded areas, where red represents urban area, yellow represents suburban and green represents rural This integration deems beneficial for future references on electrical distribution substations alongside the possible communication technologies.

Keywords: Electrical Substations; Mapping; Google Earth Pro; QGIS; Communication Technologies; Energy

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics, incorporating a thin film of Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), present a costeffective yet less efficient solar cell technology. Improving CdS/CdTe solar cell efficiency involves optimizing parameters like doping concentration and CdS layer thickness. However, limited research on cell defects necessitates a comprehensive analysis, including the often-overlooked impact of temperature. This study aims to analyze defect-free and defective CdS/CdTe solar cells, exploring the effects of doping concentration and other parameters. Using the SCAPS-1D simulator, design parameter variations will be investigated, and key metrics— open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current density (Jsc), fill factor (FF), and efficiency (η)—will be extracted. Simulation results indicate minimal efficiency impact from increased doping concentration in the ntype CdS layer for defect-free devices. The optimal doping concentration for CdS is 5 × 10¹⁸ cm^-3, with an optimum electron affinity of 4.0 eV. CdS thickness shows no significant efficiency impact, with the chosen optimum at 10 nm. In the defect-free CdS/CdTe solar cell, key metrics were Voc: 1.06 V, Jsc: 24.60 mA cm^{-2, FF: 87.89%, and η: 23.01%. Analysis of defects revealed single acceptor defects significantly impacting solar cell performance in both interfacial and bulk defects. Defect structure simulations demonstrated that increasing doping concentration, decreasing electron affinity, and thickness enhance efficiency. New optimum values for these parameters—1 × 1018 cm-3, 4.0 eV, and 10 nm—yielded Voc: 1.03 V, Jsc: 23.88 mA cm-2, FF: 87.15%, and η: 21.40%. Additionally, a temperature decrease was associated with increased efficiency.}

Keywords: CdS/CdTe solar cell; Doping Concentration; Thickness; Defect; Temperature

The rapid development of construction industry in Malaysia has caused a significant impact on the environment and has resulted in increased demand for implementing environmental management practices. This study aimed to analyze the level of understanding on environmental management practices among contractors in Malaysia. A total of 47 contractors from all grades in Malaysia participated in this study. This study also used a 5-point Likert scale for the data collection process. Items in the questionnaire were analyzed using the Rasch Measurement Model to test the validity and reliability of the research instruments. The results showed that the item reliability value was 0.57 and the individual reliability value was 0.89. The value of the item separation index is 1.16 while the value of the individual separation index obtained is 2.78. Overall, person measure for construct of understanding level on environmental management practices ranged from +7.77 logit to -1.30 logit. For construct challenge faced by the contractor, the maximum value for person measure is +6.35 logit and the minimum measurement value is -0.97 logit. For the last construct which is the impact of environmental management practices on the environment, the value of person measure is +8.27 logit to -1.62 logit. Through item suitability analysis, there are some items that need to be dropped or harmonized as they not meet the requirements in one of the Outfit MNSQ and Outfit ZSTD ranges. The Rasch Measurement Model has identified that most contractors in Malaysia still have a moderate level of understanding on environmental management practices. The findings obtained at the end of this study are significant so that these environmental management practices remain practiced by contractors to maintain sustainable development in future.

Keywords: The level of understanding, environmental management practices, Rasch Measurement Model, contractors, validity, and reliability.

The market has a significant demand for low-cost, compact size, extended fatigue life and high load-carrying capacity helical gears. One way to manufacture such gears is by minimizing gear volume and maximizing contact ratio. Most researchers focus on gear design optimization, but minimal study has been conducted to identify design variables that significantly impact gear volume and contact ratio. Hence, it is crucial to determine gear design parameters that strongly correlate with gear volume and contact ratio beforehand. A single-stage helical gear train of local electric multiple units (EMU) is used as the gear model, and the calculations are done based on ISO 6336. Seven parameters have been chosen as independent variables; module, number of teeth of pinion, gear ratio, helix angle, tooth thickness factor, normal pressure angle and addendum factor. Graphs of total gear volume and contact ratio against independent variables are plotted to examine their relationship. The results indicate that normal module, number of teeth of the pinion, and gear ratio strongly correlate with the total gear volume. Meanwhile, the number of teeth of pinion, helix angle, tooth thickness factor, normal pressure angle and addendum factor strongly correlate with contact ratio. Therefore, these design parameters must be considered to improve the accuracy of the gear design optimization model, which aims to optimize gear volume and contact ratio.

Keywords: Helical Gear; Gear Volume; Contact Ratio; Gear Design Optimization; Correlation

It is well known that innovation plays a substantial role in the public sector. However, there are concerns about how far public sector innovation (PSI) research has contributed in providing ideas to the government in formulating and implementing public policy. This study intends to investigate how PSI research has progressed and been disseminated, explore major topics mentioned in PSI studies and determine the primary players in PSI studies. This research analysed the bibliometrics of scholarly publications on public sector innovation as of August 2021, as documented in the Scopus database. We analysed the evolution of PSI research in 53 years by assessing published studies, source titles, types of sources and documents, as well as the languages in which the papers have been published. We additionally analysed PSI’s main research topics by examining popular subject categories, the most often used keywords and title analysis. Finally, we investigated the key actors in PSI research by focusing at the biggest contributions nations to PSI studies, the major establishments involved, as well as authorship and citation analysis. The conclusions suggested that during the initial stages of PSI development half a century ago, public sector innovation attracted the interest of Eastern and Western scholars, as well as the number of books and articles published each year which have increased dramatically. Although there has good inter-country cooperation exists, a deficit in PSI research also exists from specific nations compared to the rest of the globe. Our results contribute significantly to public sector innovation inclusiveness.

Keywords: Public Sector Innovation; Bibliometric Analysis; Innovation

In the digital era that encourages innovation in educational technology, it is crucial to incorporate the use of technology into pedagogy. Since the inception of hybrid learning and other approaches that involve students and instructors in educational activities, the learning environment has undergone significant changes. By utilizing instructional resources such as textbooks and videos, it has become feasible to engage with students beyond the confines of the classroom and during evening hours. Research conducted on students in grades 8 and 9 in Ontario, Canada, revealed that due to their limited spare time, they opted to study and complete their homework after school. Moreover, they exhibited a clear prioritization of their depth of subject knowledge over other factors. The study aimed to adapt the existing learning environment to establish a new environment conducive to mastery learning. It involved fifteen student participants, including an expert teacher in the flipped classroom teaching method. The study employed qualitative techniques such as focus groups, document analysis, expert agreement percentages, and innovative flipping of the classroom. The study resulted in the identification of five thematic analyses: learning flexibility, application skills, usage of application skills, mastery assessment, and the human touch. Collectively, these qualitative findings provide compelling evidence that the research participants actively engage with various aspects of the flipped learning environment, as outlined by the aforementioned themes. The participants in the case study acted as both fresh and established elements within the flipped learning environment.

Keywords: exploration; flipped learning environment; ZOOMRBT App; qualitative study; Malaysian Boarding School.

Technological evolution in the 21st Century Learning and Facilitation (L&F) have been significantly affirmed by the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). Nonetheless, the present scenario still indicates the snag of technological development in the education system such as the application of geospatial technology in the subject of Geography in Malaysia which is not significant. Generally, Learning and Facilitation (L&F) of Geography subjects concern conventional activities that do not help much in improving the Spatial Thinking Skills (STS) and student interest. Ergo, Geospatial technology has been observed to have the potential to increase STS and student interest in Geography subjects. This study aims to develop a Geospatial technology intervention module based on the theory of Cognitive Learning, Theory of Constructivism and Bloom’s Taxonomy Theory. The formation of this module adopts Sidek Module Construction Model (MPMS) as the main motivation to complete this module. The contents of the module are also identified through a more comprehensive and analytical and extensive review of past studies done. This study creates draft modules that have four submodules namely Geography Skill, Physical Geography, Human Geography and Area Geography. The module is anticipated to be implemented as an effective L&F material especially in enhancing STS and attracting students to Geography subjects.

Keywords: Spatial Thinking Skills, Interests, Sidek Modules Model Construction

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are a class of smart materials that have the unusual feature of remembering the initial shape after plastic deformation. SMAs differ from traditional elastic/plastic materials in because of reversible hysteretic thermos mechanical behavior. Copper (Cu) based shape memory alloys are the most promising in terms of practical application due to their inexpensive cost and high recovery force. Powder injection molding (PIM) is well known for the creation of complex components (micro parts) and Copper Aluminium Manganese (CuAlMn) materials are studied through this process. The rheological behavior of the feedstock needs to be determined to avoid any nonhomogeneous mixture between powder and binder that may result in powder and binder separation during the injection molding process. This work focused on the rheological properties of CuAlMn with a binder system of polyethylene glycol (Peg), polymethyl methacrylate acrylic (Pmma) and stearic acid (Sa). The critical powder volume percentage of composite was at 85wt% Cu, 12wt% Al and 3wt% Mn was obtained. Based on such value, the powder loadings used in this work was 58wt% mixed with 73wt% Peg, 12wt% Pmma and 5wt% Sa. A capillary rheometer was employed for the rheological studies where the relationship between shear rate and viscosity was investigated. There were 3 variant temperatures (115℃, 125℃ and 135℃) and 4 loads (40N, 50N, 60N and 70N) applied for the rheology test. The obtained result shows that the overall shear rate and viscosity are within the PIM process recommended range and flow index is below 1. This shows pseudoplastic behavior of the feedstock.

Keywords: Copper; Aluminium; Manganese; Binder system; Rheology

Aluminum metal matrix composite (AMC) is a potential material for diverse applications in the field of automotive and aerospace owing to their superior mechanical properties, lightweight behavior, and low thermal expansion. Graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) have emerged as the preferred reinforcement in AMC. They are incorporated into the matrix by stir-casting methods to generate semi-solid feedstock suitable for thixoforming. The effects of the stirrer parameter and GNP content were examined using Taguchi design of experiments with an L8 (23) orthogonal array. The parameters tested were stirring speed (300-500rpm), GNP content (0.3- 0.7 wt%) and stirring time (5-10 minutes). The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and hardness of the GNP /A356 composite were used as response variables. The contribution of three factors in enhancing hardness has been identified. The optimum parameter obtained with stirring speed, GNP content, and stirring time is 500rpm, 0.7wt.%GNP and 5 min respectively.

Keywords: Metal matrix composite; Graphene; Taguchi Method; Stir casting

Transportation industry is an important part of most countries’ economies with significant effects on productivity and social welfare. However, refrigeration has dramatically altered global food transportation efficiencies in the cold supply chain. Hence, a key factor to optimize transportation is by lowering operational costs, with distance travel having a considerable impact. The paper examines how the operational costs of different truck classes is influenced by the distance travelled. The operating cost equation was utilized to make a comparison between vehicle operating costs and to assess how these costs change in relation to travel distance. The equation consists of influential parameters such as fuel cost, driver wage, and maintenance cost of a vehicle. The result showed that the operating cost rate varies among trucks of different classes. According to the results of the equation and effective parameter analysis, 18-ton trucks had the highest cost, followed by 5-ton trucks. This is due to fact that the cost is influenced by factors of travel distance, tolls, and fuel consumption. Furthermore, based on transportation costs, a green practice framework can be constructed to reduce truck costs for each delivery while reducing CO2 emissions to the environment. By taking into account transportation cost factors in the framework of green practices, effective and practical information can be generated such as product delivery schedules to customers and better routes to improve business performance. Finally, effective transportation management can improve inventory flow by enhancing warehouse efficiency, reducing overall lead time, and saving on storage costs.

Keywords: Refrigerated Transportation; Trucks Operating Costs; Cold Supply Chain; Case Study; Linear Regression Equations

The average speed of the train can be determined by dividing the distance by the time taken to reach the targeted destination. Nevertheless, in the process of railroad travel, the pace of the train can either slow down or speed up depending on the circumstances. It is essential to conduct research into the speed of the railroad in particular conditions to ascertain what speed is appropriate for the railroad to run safely under certain conditions. This study is currently being conducted using Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors to determine the speed of the train at a specific point. Three different specific points are chosen. The speed is calculated by dividing the distance between two wheels on one bogie by the time between the two peaks representing the two wheels on one bogie. The train traveling between each point exhibits three different speed behaviours. It is currently found that the average speed at location 1 is 49.71 km/h, and the train is decelerating. At location 2, the average speed is 66.21 km/h, and the train moves at a constant speed. Lastly, at location 3, the average speed is 40.18 km/h, and the train is accelerating. In addition, the wavelength shifting signal can be utilized to count the train’s axles. In this experiment, the train consists of 9 bogies with 18 sets of wheels. Therefore, this experiment demonstrates that FBG sensors can be used to determine the speed of the train at a certain location.

Keywords: Railway; Speed; FBG sensor; Axle count; Wavelength graph

Railway transportation is essential and continually evolving with new technologies to achieve high efficiency and passenger safety. Monitoring railways can be challenging, especially when dealing with delicate equipment. This study outlines a basic guideline and real-time monitoring process for railway tracks, serving as precautionary measures. The research employs Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors directly attached to the railway track’s web surface, which have the potential to cause failures. Before sensor installation, several critical steps were taken to ensure the fragile FBG sensors remained intact. These steps involved preparing sensor arrangements and positioning them before installation. Additionally, a calibration test for FBG is performed using the Universal Tensile Machine (UTM) with a mild steel sample, achieving a measurement of almost 1.2 picometers/micro-strain. As a result, a shift in wavelength was successfully measured and collected, enabling the calculation of strain-stress data for the rail structure during operation. The collected data exhibited no irregularities or anomalies data, indicating the success of the monitoring process. The data obtained from a well-prepared installation greatly differs from that of an underprepared one. This study underscores the necessity of thorough preparation when handling delicate equipment like FBG sensor. Therefore, the FBG sensor has the capability to measure the strain-stress behavior of rail structures, allowing for more accurate predictive assessments to prevent rail failures.

Keywords: Railway Transportation; Structural Monitoring; Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG); Strain-Stress

The goal of combined economic and emission dispatch (CEED) in the power system is to solve the economics management of generators in order to achieve both minimum fuel prices and pollution levels while meeting load demands and operating limits. The Search and Rescue (SAR) optimization methodology is developed in this study to address the CEED problem, and the results gained are compared with the Evolutionary Programming and Flower Pollination Algorithm methods. Those analyses are able to evaluate the effectiveness as well as the rate of convergence of the methods under consideration. In general, the CEED problem is initially considered a bi-objective problem that has been turned into a single objective function by the use of the price penalty element in its solution. Both solutions were tested on an IEEE 10-Generator 39-Bus System, which has a valve point impact with transmission loss. MATLAB is additionally utilized to run modeling for the evaluated system, with each system subjected to three separate load demands. The results reveal that the SAR technique performs better because it generates resilient and effective solutions to the CEED problem with the lowest fuel price, greenhouse gas emissions, CEED price, and power loss.

Keywords: combined economic and emission dispatch; valve point effect; search and rescue algorithm; flower pollination algorithm; evolutionary programming

During the past decade, improvement in the functionality of textile materials has become an important research field due to their significant health and safety benefits. Here we report, simple and cost-effective green synthesis of silica nanoparticles from fibrous residue of sugarcane bagasse followed by investigating the applicability on cotton fabric. The characteristics of synthesized nanoparticles were determined by techniques including FTIR (exhibited characteristic peak at 791.01 attributed to vibration of Si-O and the absorption band at 1072.48 cm-1 owing to asymmetric vibration of Si-O-Si confirming the formation of SNPs), SEM (40±2nm), and XRD (Examined spectra with JCPDS 36-1451 indicate well-defined peaks of Silicon Oxide). Debye Scherrer equation was used to calculate the mean crystallite size (19.79 nm) of powder Silica NP sample at the full width half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peaks of 2Ɵ positions. Applicability of synthesized nanoparticles was determined by assessing thermal stability and antimicrobial property of treated and untreated cotton fabric. It was observed that silica nanoparticles coated fabric showed substantial thermal stability at 1 % Silica NPs comparatively treated with 2% and 3% silica NPs due to clustering phenomena. Antimicrobial property, confirmatory test as positive control of treated fabric shown substantial increased in antibacterial activity in solutions containing silica NPs as compared to the ethanol solution. Moreover, 76 green profiling score of synthesized method was evaluated by Analytical Eco-Scale tool.

Keywords: Silica nanoparticle; sugarcane bagasse; functional fabric; thermal stability; cotton fabric; antimicrobial activity.

A liquid desiccant cooling system is an alternative air-conditioning system with significant energy-saving potential. This system is commonly used in the industrial sector, such as in dehumidifiers. The key component of the liquid desiccant cooling system is its dehumidification performance. Therefore, a study on a liquid desiccant dehumidifier has been conducted to predict its performance using computational fluid dynamics analysis. In these simulations, the effects of the temperature of the liquid desiccant and the velocity of air flow on the absorption process between the liquid desiccant and air were studied. The same applies to the velocity profile, which helps determine the airflow pattern within the dehumidifier. The model was constructed using ANSYS FLUENT and Autodesk Inventor. The model is the rotary desiccant wheel dehumidifier which was used to dehumidified the air.. ANSYS CFX was used for simulating the velocity profile to achieve the airflow pattern in the dehumidifier. The volume of fluid was selected as the multiphase method for the second simulation process. The temperature and mass fraction of water were monitored within the air during the counterflow simulation between the liquid desiccant and the air. The liquid desiccant chosen for this study was LiCl. The simulations were conducted at specific air velocities, and the behavior within the dehumidifier was observed. The analysis results revealed that the air entering the rotary desiccant wheel dehumidifier experienced a drop in velocity after passing through the desiccant wheel in the middle. Additionally, turbulence occurred after the air passed through the wheel and the dehumidifier’s wall. Based on these findings, the design of an optimal dehumidifier and the selection of an appropriate air velocity for cooling can be carried out.

Keywords: Liquid desiccant; dehumidifier; rotary desiccant wheel dehumidifier; CFD; velocity profile; heat and mass transfer

Almost all buildings in Malaysia were previously designed for non-seismic loading. As such, the need to consider seismic load poses challenges for the engineers and project owners. In order to enlighten the stakeholders on the effect of adopting seismic design, the impact on building material cost and quantities must be investigated in advance. Although many studies have been conducted, the use of hypothetical building models and not considering the actual soil factors in Malaysia may yield unrealistic results. As such, this study is conducted with the aim to evaluate the change in the material quantities of the main frame members using six existing building models subjected to peak ground acceleration of 0.16g and situated on soil type D. The analysis, design and taking-off were conducted with the aid of Tekla Structural Designer software. The results showed significant increase in terms of the material quantity required for the main frame members when seismic design was considered. The increase in the concrete volume and reinforcement tonnage was calculated to be in the range of 6.92% to 404.86% and 3.23% to 563.94%, respectively. The development of high base shear force, the amplification of the seismic force by the soft soil, and relatively stringent detailing in DCM were identified as the contributing factors. With a broader spectrum of results, the stakeholder can anticipate the increase in the material cost for adopting seismic design that can be useful for design submission and project cost estimation.

Keywords: Seismic design; Conventional design; Concrete volume; Steel reinforcement; Ductility level