Sains Malaysiana 42(8)(2013):
1065–1072
PM2.5 and
Associated Ionic Species in a Sub-urban Coastal Area of
Kuala
Terengganu, Southern South China Sea (Malaysia)
(PM2.5 dan
Spesies Ion Berkaitan di Kawasan Bandar Pesisir Pantai, Kuala Terengganu,
Perairan Selatan Laut China Selatan (Malaysia))
Norhayati Mohd Tahir*, Meikee Koh & Suhaimi Suratman
Environmental Research Group, Department
of Chemical Sciences,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti
Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
Norhayati Mohd Tahir* & Suhaimi
Suratman
Fellow, Institute of Oceanography and
Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
Diserahkan: 1 November 2011/Diterima: 3 April 2013
ABSTRACT
PM2.5 mass concentration and
associated water-soluble ionic species in a sub-urban coastal area of Kuala
Terengganu, Malaysia were investigated intermittently from year 2006 to 2009. A
total of 78 weekly PM2.5 samples were analyzed.
The mass concentration of PM2.5 exhibited annual,
seasonal and diurnal variations. Temporal distributions of rainfall, sporadic
haze episodes and local air flow (sea breeze circulation) were factors
controlling PM2.5 mass variations in the
study area. Although the PM2.5 concentrations were
increased during haze episodes in 2006 (August and October) and 2007 (October),
their concentrations however, were still within the international guidelines.
The average concentration of individual ions was in decreasing trend; SO42->
NH4+>
K+>
Na+>
NO3->
Cl->
Ca2+.
The concentrations of SO42- and NH4+ accounted for > 70%
of the water-soluble aerosol mass. More than 80% of ionic species associated
with PM2.5 are
from non-marine sources. Major processes affecting the ionic composition of PM2.5 are
biomass burning, crustal loading and sea spray. Air quality mitigation
strategies should focus on anthropogenic activities emitting SO2, which promotes
aerosol SO42- formation.
Keywords: Aerosols; fine particles; source apportionment,
trans-boundary haze episode; water-soluble ionic species
ABSTRAK
Satu kajian mengenai kepekatan jisim PM2.5 dan spesies ion larut
air di kawasan bandar pesisir pantai Kuala Terengganu telah dijalankan secara
berkala mulai tahun 2006 hingga 2009. Sejumlah 78 sampel
mingguan telah dianalisis. Kepekatan jisim PM2.5 mempamerkan
perubahan harian, musim dan tahunan. Taburan hujan,
jerebu yang berlaku sekali-sekala dan aliran udara tempatan (kitaran bayu laut)
adalah faktor yang mempengaruhi perubahan kepekatan PM2.5 di kawasan kajian. Walaupun kepekatan PM2.5 didapati meningkat
semasa berlakunya jerebu pada 2006 (Ogos dan Oktober) dan 2007 (Oktober), namun
nilainya masih di bawah aras piawai kualiti udara antarabangsa. Kepekatan purata ion
individu berkurang mengikut turutan SO42-> NH4+>
K+>
Na+>
NO3->
Cl->
Ca2+. Kepekatan SO42- dan NH4+ menyumbang lebih 70%
daripada keseluruhan jisim spesies ion yang dianalisis. Di samping itu,
lebih 80% spesies ion ini didapati berpunca daripada sumber bukan marin. Faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kandungan
PM2.5 adalah
pembakaran biojisim, elemen semula jadi daripada kerak bumi dan semburan
daripada laut. Justeru itu, strategi menangani kualiti
udara seharusnya memberi penekanan kepada aktiviti antropogenik yang
menyebabkan pelepasan SO2 yang menggalakkan pembentukan aerosol SO42-.
Kata kunci: Aerosol; jerebu merentasi sempadan;
pengenalpastian sumber; spesies ion terlarut air; zarah halus
RUJUKAN
Almeida, S.M., Pio, C.A.,
Freitas, M.C., Reis, M.A. & Transcoso, M.A. 2005. Source apportionment of fine
and coarse particulate matter in a sub-urban area at the Western European
Coast. Atmopheric Environment 39: 3127-3138.
Anwar, A., Liew, J., Latif,
M.T. & Othman, M.R. 2010. Correlation between hotspots and air quality in
Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia in 2006-2007. Sains Malaysiana 39:
169-174.
Arimoto, R., Duce, R.A.
& Savoie, D.L. 1996. Relationships among aerosol constituents from Asia and the North Pacific during
PEM-West A. Journal of Geophysical Research 101: 2011-2023.
Balasubramaniam, R., Qian, W.B., Decesari, S.,
Facchini, M.C. & Fuzzi, S. 2003. Comprehensive
characterization of PM2.5 aerosols in Singapore. Journal of Geophysical Research 108: D16, 4523.
Baumgardner, D., Raga,
G.B., Grutter, M., Lammel, G. & Moya, M. 2006. Evolution of anthropogenic aerosols in the coastal town in Salina
Cruz, Mexico: Part II particulate phase chemistry. Science of the Total
Environment 372: 287-298.
Brook, R.D., Franklin, B., Cascio, W., Hong, Y.,
Howard, G., Lipsett, M., Luepker, R., Mittleman, M., Samet, J., Smith, S.C.
& Ira, T. 2004. Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: A statement from
the expert panel on population and prevention science of the American Heart
Association. Journal of the American Heart Association 109: 2655-2671.
Chan, Y.C., Simpson, R.W.,
Mctainsh, G.H., Vowles, P.D., Cohen, D.D. & Bailey, G.M. 1997. Characterisation of chemical
species in PM2.5 and PM10 aerosols in Brisbane, Australia. Atmospheric
Environment 31: 3773-3785.
Dockery, D.W., Arden Pope III, C., Xu, X.,
Spengler, J.D., Ware, J.H., Fay, M.E., Ferris, B.G. & Speizer, F.E. 1993. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S.
cities. The New England Journal of Medicine 329: 1753-1759.
Eleftheriadis, K., Balis,
D., Ziomas, I.C., Colbeck, I. & Manalis, N. 1998. Atmospheric aerosol and
gaseous species in Athens, Greece. Atmospheric Environment 32:
2183-2191.
Fang, G.C., Chang, C.N., Wu, Y.S., Peter Pi,
C.F., Yang, C.J., Chen, C.D. & Chang, S.C. 2002. Ambient suspended
particulate matters and related chemical species study in central Taiwan,
Taichung during 1998-2001. Atmospheric Environment 36: 1921-1928.
Hernandez-Mena, L.,
Saldarriaga-Norena, H., Carbajal-Romero, P., Cosio-Ramirez, R. &
Esquival-Hernandez, B. 2010. Ionic species associated with PM2.5 in the City of
Guadalajara, Mexico during 2007. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 161:
281-293.
Hu, M., Ling, Y.H., Zhang,
Y.H., Wang, M., Kim, Y.P. & Moon, K.C. 2002. Seasonal variation of ionic
species in fine particles at Qingdao, China. Atmospheric Environment 36:
5853-5859.
Ka, M.W. & Tanner, P.A.
1999. Monitoring long-term
variations of aerosol composition: A dual particle-size approach applied to
Hong Kong. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 79: 275-286.
Kang, C.M., Lee, H.S., Kang, B.W., Lee, S.K.
& Young, S. 2004. Chemical characteristics of acidic gas
pollutants and PM2.5 species during hazy
episodes in Seoul, South Korea. Atmospheric Environment 38:
4749-4760.
Karthikeyan, S. &
Balasubramaniam, R. 2006. Determination of water-soluble inorganic and
organic species in atmospheric fine particulate matter. Microchemical
Journal 82: 49-55.
Khare, P. & Baruah, B.P. 2010. Elemental
characterization and source identification of PM2.5 using multivariate
analysis at the suburban site of North-East India. Atmospheric
Environment 98: 148-162.
Kocak, M., Mihalopoulos, N.
& Kubilay, N. 2007. Contributions of natural sources to high PM10 and PM2.5 events in the eastern
Mediterranean. Atmospheric Environment 41: 3806-3818.
Kumar, A. & Sarin, M.M. 2010. Atmospheric
water-soluble constituents in fine and coarse mode aerosolsfrom high-altitude
site in western India: Long-range transport and seasonal variability. Atmospheric
Environment 44: 1245- 1254.
Juneng, L., Latif, M.T., Tangang, F. &
Mansor, H. 2009. Spatio-temporal characteristics of PM10 concentrations
across Malaysia. Atmospheric Environment 43: 4584-4594.
Liu, H. & Johnny Chan, C.L. 2002. An
investigation of air-pollutant pattern under sea-land breezes during a severe
air-pollution episode in Hong Kong. Atmospheric Environment 36: 591-601.
Mohd Tahir, N., Poh, S.C., Suhaimi, H., Khalik,
H.W., Shamsiah, A.R., Wee, B.S., Suhaimi, E. & Nazaratul, A.S. 2008. Analysis of PM10 in Kuala Terengganu by
instrumental neutron activation analysis. Malaysian Journal of
Analytical Sciences 12: 187-194.
Mohd Tahir, N., Poh, S.C.,
Suratman, S., Ariffin, M.M., Shazili, N.A.M. & Yunus, K. 2009. Determination of trace metals in airborne
particulate matter of Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia. Bulletin of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology 83: 199-203.
Park, S.S. & Kim, Y.J. 2004. PM2.5 particle
and size-segregated ionic species measured during fall season in three urban
sites in Korea. Atmospheric Environment 38: 1459-1471.
Pey, J., Perez, N., Castillo,
S., Viana, M., Moreno, T., Pandolf, M., Lopez-Sebastian, J.M., Alastuey, A.
& Querol, X. 2009. Geochemistry of regional background aerosols in the Western
Mediterranean. Atmospheric Research 94: 422-435.
Pillai, P.S., Babu, S.S. & Moorthy, K.K. 2002. A study of PM, PM10 and PM2.5 concentration at a
tropical coastal station. Atmospheric Research 61: 149-167.
Pope III, C.A., Burnett, R.T. & Thun, M.J.
2002. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term
exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Journal of the American
Medical Association 287: 1132-1141.
Prodi, F., Belosi, F.,
Contini, D., Santachiara, G., Matteo, L.D., Gambaro, S., Donateo, A. &
Cesari, D. 2009. Aerosol fine fraction in
the Venice Lagoon: Particle composition and source. Atmospheric Research 92:
141-150.
Samet, J.M., Francesca Dominici, M.D., Curriero,
F.C., Coursac, I. & Zeger, S.L. 2000. Fine particulate air pollution and
mortality in 20 U.S. cities. The New England Journal of Medicine 343:
1742-1749.
Seinfield, J.H. & Pandis, S.N. 1998. Atmospheric
Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change. New York:
Wiley.
Sun, Y., Zhuang, G., Tang,
A., Wang, Y. & An, Z. 2006. Chemical characteristics of PM2.5 and PM10 in haze-fog episodes in
Beijing. Environmental Science and Technology 40: 3148- 3155.
Tan, J., Duan, J., Chen,
D., Wang, X., Guo, S., Bi, X., Sheng, G., He, K. & Fu, J. 2009. Chemical characteristic of
haze during summer and winter in Guangzhou. Atmospheric Research 94:
238-245.
Tangang, F., Latif, M.T.
& Juneng, L. 2010. The Roles of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Smoke
Haze Occurrences in the Southeast Asia Region. London: LSE IDEAS.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA). 2010. National Ambient Air Quality Standards. http://www.epa.gov/ air/criteria.html (Accessed on 26 October 2010).
Wang, Y., Zhuang, G., Tang,
A., Yuan, H., Sun, Y., Chen, S. & Zheng, A. 2005. The ion chemistry and the
source of PM2.5 aerosol in Beijing. Atmospheric Environment 39: 3771-3784.
World Health Organization
(WHO). 2008. Air Quality and
Health: Particulate Matter.
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/index.html (Accessed on 26 October 2010).
Venkataraman, C., Konda Reddy, C., Sajni Josson,
M. & Shekar Reddy, M. 2002. Aerosol size and chemical
characteristics at Mumbai, India during the INDOEX-IFP (1999). Atmospheric
Environment 36: 1979-1991.
Yao, X., Chan, C.K., Fang,
M., Cadle, S., Chan, T., Mulawa, P., He, K. & Ye, B. 2002. The water-soluble ionic composition of PM2.5 in Shanghai and Beijing, China. Atmospheric Environment 36: 4223-4234.
*Corresponding
author; email: hayati@umt.edu.my
|